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LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Volume 112, May 2024, 102445 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102445Get rights and content HIGHLIGHTS * • Independent effect of variables was

unearthed by variable-oriented approaches. * • Girls outperformed boys in math achievement at T1. * • Independent and joint effect of variables were found by person-oriented approaches. * •

Compensatory effect of math self-efficacy on math achievement was discovered. ABSTRACT Limited research has explored how perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy jointly impact math

achievement, as emphasized by social cognitive theory. This study uses both variable-oriented and person-oriented approaches to examine their joint and independent effects. Additionally, it

investigates gender differences in math achievement and the moderating role of gender in the impact of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy. Chinese primary school students (_n_ 

= 1725, Mage = 8.97, 41.62 % girls) in grades 3 and 4 participated. Results show: (1) T1 math self-efficacy positively predicts T2 math achievement in structural equation modeling, with

perceived teacher support demonstrates a short-term predictive effect at T1. (2) Significant gender differences in T1 math achievement diminish over time. (3) Person-oriented analysis

revealed both the independent and joint effects of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement. These findings offer insights into factors influencing math

achievement and ways to enhance it. EDUCATIONAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT The study reveals that perceived teacher support independently influences math achievement, suggesting the need for extra

support for students with low perceived teacher support. Additionally, it emphasizes the compensatory effect of math self-efficacy, advising practitioners to maintain support for students

with low math self-efficacy and high perceived teacher support, and to actively nurture math self-efficacy for those with high math self-efficacy and low perceived teacher support. The joint

effect of math self-efficacy and perceived teacher support underscores the importance of tailored support to enhance both aspects. Finally, addressing gender differences, the study

highlights the need to provide enhanced support for male students in educational practice. INTRODUCTION Mathematics is indispensable knowledge for humanity and plays a crucial role in the

development of society. In primary school, academic achievement is a key indicator of students' academic adaptation and ability development (Guay et al., 2003; Lafavor, 2018; Schmidt et

al., 2017; Soo-Jeong & Choi, 2018). Math achievement, in particular, has been found to predict subsequent math achievement as well as math anxiety (Gunderson et al., 2018), which in

turn impacts students' decision to pursue Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) careers (Wang, 2013; Wang et al., 2015). However, some studies have observed a

declining trend in math scores among children worldwide (Kastberg et al., 2016; Wijsman et al., 2016). Developmental theorists posit that the primary school stage is a crucial period for

children's development and achievement (Ly et al., 2012). During this phase, strong mathematical performance directly influences the subsequent growth of their mathematical

capabilities. Furthermore, students in the middle grades of primary school begin to transition from passive learning to active learning, making it crucial to focus on the factors influencing

math achievement during this stage of elementary education. This attention allows for more effective interventions aimed at enhancing their mathematical abilities. Hence, this study will

conduct an investigation on students in the third and fourth grades of primary school. Currently, research on math achievement focuses on its determinants. Lee and Shute (2010) proposed the

integrated framework of personal and social contextual factors for academic achievement, which posits that social environmental and personal factors independently and jointly affect academic

achievement. Among the environmental factors, the emphasis is primarily on the roles of teachers, families, and peers. For instance, a positive teacher-student relationship has been shown

to enhance children's math achievement (Plunkett et al., 2008; Umarji et al., 2021), and students often achieve better math achievement when taught by highly enthusiastic teachers

(Keller et al., 2016; Moè et al., 2021). Additionally, parents' occupations and educational levels (Tomul et al., 2021) and parental involvement (Kodzi et al., 2014) also have positive

effects on children's math achievement. Furthermore, peers also play a positive role in children's math achievement (Alegre et al., 2020). Among various environmental factors,

perceived teacher support stands out as the most commonly emphasized school-related variable for students (Li et al., 2023), and it holds significant influence over math achievement (Yang et

al., 2021; Yildirim & Yildirim, 2019). Besides, for elementary school students, school is the microsystem that has the greatest influence on them besides the family (Bronfenbrenner,

1979). Therefore, this study will focus on the impact of perceived teacher support on children's mathematical performance. Among individual factors, math perseverance (Kaya &

Karakoc, 2022) have positive effects on elementary school children's math achievement. Students with negative academic emotions, such as math anxiety, boredom, and shame, often achieve

lower math scores (Pekrun et al., 2023). Gender stereotypes (Han, 2019) and difficulties in self-regulation (Elhusseini et al., 2022) have negative impacts on elementary school

children's math achievement. Additionally, gender differences have been found in the math grades of elementary school children (Winkelmann et al., 2008). Within individual factors, math

self-efficacy stands as a potent social cognitive predictor of math achievement (Fast et al., 2010; Grigg et al., 2018). In addition, social cognitive theory holds that self-efficacy is the

important factor influencing individual performance (Bandura et al., 1997). Therefore, this study will focus on the impact of math self-efficacy on children's mathematical performance.

This study adopts Social Cognitive Theory as the research framework to investigate the factors influencing primary school children's math achievement (Bandura et al., 1997). Prior

research has often utilized this theoretical framework to investigate the effects of environmental factors and self-efficacy on individual achievement, such as the influence of

children's perceived classroom environment and math self-efficacy on mathematical performance (Fast et al., 2010). The Social Cognitive Theory posits that there is a dynamic interaction

between behavior (e.g., math engagement, math performance), individual characteristics (e.g., math self-efficacy), and environmental factors (e.g., teacher support) (Bandura et al., 1997).

Specifically, this theory proposes that behavior is influenced by individual characteristics and environmental factors (Bandura et al., 1997). Perceived teacher support, as a crucial

component of the environment, can be defined as showing appreciation for the child, being attuned to their needs, spending time and energy on the child, and being available (Li et al.,

2023). This type of support is considered to have a multidimensional structure, including dimensions such as autonomy support, cognitive support, and emotional support (Lietaert et al.,

2015; Luo et al., 2023). It has a significant influence on individuals' growth and success. As emphasized by ecological systems theory, schools are one of the important microsystems

that affect individuals' development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Research has found that enhancing teacher support can improve students' learning depth (Zhao & Qin, 2021),

enjoyment of learning (Choi & Cho, 2021), creativity (Zhang et al., 2020), involvement in the mathematics classroom (Wang, Liu, et al., 2017), and math performance (Yang et al., 2021;

Yildirim & Yildirim, 2019). The positive effects of teacher support on students' math performance have also been observed in various dimensions, such as emotional support (AF Strati

et al., 2018) and autonomy support (Wang, Schmidt, & Maier, 2017). In summary, we hypothesize that perceived teacher support can have a positive independent effect on math achievement.

Math self-efficacy, as an important concept in individual characteristics, refers to an individual's belief in their ability to complete mathematics learning tasks and achieve learning

goals, and is an essential component of academic achievement and academic emotion (Hackett & Betz, 1989). Math self-efficacy has been shown to be a stronger predictor of math achievement

than either math anxiety or previous math experience and influences math achievement as strongly as overall mental ability (Pajares & Kranzler, 1995; Pajares & Miller, 1995).

Students with higher math self-efficacy exhibit greater enjoyment and pride in learning math (Luo et al., 2016), higher engagement in math classes (Song & Sun, 2022), more interest in

math learning (Navarro et al., 2007), are more willing to learn (Rottinghaus et al., 2002), tend to have better math achievement (Arens et al., 2020) and reduced math anxiety (Macmull &

Ashkenazi, 2019). Hence, we estimate that the higher the math self-efficacy of elementary school students, the better their math achievement. In summary, it is clear that perceived

teachers' support and students' math self-efficacy, as important social and personal factors, have a significant impact on individual math achievement. It deserves attention that

the environment can shape individuals' characteristics, and individuals' characteristics can also reshape the environment. Empirical research has confirmed the existence of an

interaction between academic self-efficacy and perceived teacher support on math computation skills (Mercer et al., 2011), finding that children with high academic self-efficacy and low

perceived teacher support exhibit the fastest improvement in mathematical skills. This interaction is evident in the effects of math self-efficacy and teacher support on math engagement

(Martin & Rimm-Kaufman, 2015). Specifically, math self-efficacy can moderate the effect of teacher support on students' math engagement. For students with low math self-efficacy,

the growth of math engagement in the group with high teacher support was greater than that in the group with low teacher support. Conversely, for those with high math self-efficacy, there

was no difference in the growth of math engagement between the high and low teacher support groups (Martin & Rimm-Kaufman, 2015). However, whether there is an interaction between math

self-efficacy and perceived teacher support on math achievement remains unknown. Given the aforementioned findings and social cognitive theory, we hypothesize that there is an interaction

between math self-efficacy and perceived teacher support in influencing math achievement, where children with both high math self-efficacy and high perceived teacher support will exhibit

better math performance. For math achievement, researchers also explore potential differences between male and female students. Previous research findings have shown inconsistency in this

regard. Some researchers argue that there are no gender differences in math scores (Lindberg et al., 2010; Scheiber et al., 2015; Szczygieł & Pieronkiewicz, 2022). On the other hand,

another group of researchers suggests the existence of gender differences, with boys outperforming girls (Ganley & Lubienski, 2016; Lorenz & Schneebaum, 2023), while contradictory

results indicate that girls outperform boys (Gherasim et al., 2013). Given these divergent findings, this study aims to explore gender differences in math achievement among primary school

children, we speculate that girls' mathematical performance is superior to boys' math achievements. Additionally, gender has been found to moderate the effects of teacher support

on creative thinking (Zhang et al., 2020), with the impact of teacher support on boys' creative thinking being more pronounced than on girls. This gender moderation is also evident in

student engagement (Bru et al., 2021), where teacher support has a stronger influence on males' mathematical participation. Furthermore, the relationship between self-efficacy and

individual behavior (Chen et al., 2019) is stronger for boys. This raises the issue of whether the effects of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement might vary

based on gender. Therefore, we are intrigued by the possibility of differential effects of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement between genders. We

hypothesize that the impact of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement is greater for boys than for girls. In previous research on the relationship between

perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy, studies have found a positive effect of teacher support on self-efficacy (Lewis et al., 2012; Zhao & Qin, 2021), but there were also

been researcher who did not find evidence of such predictive effects (Chang et al., 2018). These conflicting research results may partially stem from the limitations of traditional linear

analysis methods in capturing complex nonlinear relationships and individual heterogeneity. Especially in the fields of education and psychology, individual differences in perceived teacher

support and math self-efficacy can be quite significant. Similarly, developmental contextualism theory emphasizes that individual development is influenced by contextual events and is

continuously changing (Lerner, 2002). Therefore, we employ a person-oriented analysis approach to study the relationship between perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy from a more

micro-level perspective. Furthermore, our primary objective is to focus on the joint effects of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement. In comparison to

variable-oriented analysis, person-oriented analysis methods are better suited to examining the combined effects of two or even more variables (Bakaç et al., 2023; Fouquereau et al., 2019).

However, the majority of studies have predominantly employed variable-oriented analysis methods, with only limited utilizing person-oriented analysis. Hence, there is a necessity to conduct

person-oriented analysis in order to better explore the research questions. In recent years, person-oriented research methods such as Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) and Latent Transition

Analysis (LTA) have emerged as effective ways to examine the population heterogeneity of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy and their stability and change over time. These

methods identify individuals with similar characteristics to track population heterogeneity and capture different behavioral groups to explain the association between explicit variables

through latent variables, revealing differences or stages of development between individuals (Hickendorff et al., 2018). By comparing the differences in math achievement among different

groups and examining changes in scores over time, we can gain insights into the independent and joint effects of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement during

the transition. In order to explore the aforementioned questions, this study employed both variable-oriented (cross-sectional and longitudinal SEM methods) and person-oriented approaches

(LPA and LTA) to investigate the independent and joint effects of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement among a group of Chinese primary school students. This

study posited the following hypotheses: H1 At the variable level, whether in cross-sectional or longitudinal analyses, perceived teacher support and mathematical self-efficacy positively

predict children's math achievement, and there is an interaction between the two. H2 The girls' math achievements are superior to the boys' math achievements. H3 The impact of

perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement is greater for boys than for girls. H4 In a person-oriented perspective, children's math achievements vary

depending on diverse profiles of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy. Perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy among primary school students have positive effects, both

independently and jointly, on math achievement. SECTION SNIPPETS PARTICIPANTS Participants in this study were recruited from two county-town public primary schools in Shandong Province,

located in eastern China. The study was conducted over a period of one year, with the first test time (T1) administered in December 2017, and a total of 1850 valid participants (769 girls,

Mage = 8.97 years, SD = 0.77) were obtained. There were 944 third-grade students (371girls, Mage = 9.26 years, SD = 0.64) and 904 fourth-grade students (398girls, Mage = 10.44 years, SD = 

0.79). The PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS The descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations for each variable are shown in Table 1. Zero-order correlation analyses indicated that perceived teacher

support, math self-efficacy, math achievement, and grade were positively correlated with one another (_r_ > 0.08, _p_ < 0.05). Significant correlations, with positive coefficients

ranging from 0.18 to 0.94, were observed for perceived teacher support, math self-efficacy, and their dimensions. Additionally, gender showed a significant positive DISCUSSION In this study,

we aimed to explore the both independent and joint effects of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement among primary school children. Initially, we employed a

variable-oriented approach, specifically structural equation modeling, for analysis. Subsequently, we analyzed gender differences in math achievement and explored the moderating role of

gender in the effects of perceived teacher support and math self-efficacy on math achievement. Finally, we CONCLUSION This study aimed to investigate the effects of perceived teacher support

and math self-efficacy on math achievement among primary school children, as well as the moderating role of gender in these effects. The study findings revealed several key points. Firstly,

in the variable-oriented analysis, Structural equation modeling reveals that T1 math self-efficacy positively predicts T2 mathematical achievement, and perceived teacher support

demonstrates a short-term predictive effect at T1. CREDIT AUTHORSHIP CONTRIBUTION STATEMENT JIAJIA ZHANG: Visualization, Methodology, Data curation. HONGXIA LI: Visualization, Validation,

Formal analysis. BIJUAN HUANG: Methodology, Investigation. HONGMIN FENG: Visualization, Investigation. CHANG LIU: Methodology, Data curation. JIWEI SI: Writing – review & editing,

Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Funding acquisition. DECLARATION OF COMPETING INTEREST All authors declare no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship or the

publication of this article. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We warrant that the article is the original work, hasn't received prior publication and isn't under consideration for publication

elsewhere. We would like to thank all the teachers and students who participated in the data collections. FUNDING SOURCE DECLARATION This work was supported by National Natural Science

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more references CITED BY (4) * THE MEDIATING ROLE OF SELF-EFFICACY BETWEEN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ PERCEIVED TEACHER SUPPORT AND MATHEMATICS FEEDBACK LITERACY 2024, Learning and Motivation

Show abstract During high school, some students struggle with maths because of their inadequate mathematics feedback literacy. Mathematics teacher support is crucial for enhancing students’

mathematics feedback literacy. This research aims to analyze the fundamental traits of high school students’ mathematics feedback literacy, examine the connection between their perceived

mathematics teacher support and feedback literacy, and explore the influence of mathematics self-efficacy within this context. The study population consisted of 619 high school students,

including freshmen (N = 366; 59.1 %) and sophomores (N = 253; 40.9 %), in the western provinces of China. The instruments used were the Mathematics Feedback Literacy Scale, the Perceived

Mathematics Teacher Support Scale, and Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale. The research uncovered a notable positive correlation between students’ perceived mathematics teacher support

(especially affective support and autonomy support) and mathematics feedback literacy, with affective support exhibiting the greatest explanatory capacity. Deeper examinations indicated that

mathematics self-efficacy functioned as a pivotal mediator in this connection, particularly in linking affective support to various aspects of mathematics feedback literacy. This research

underscores the pivotal role that students’ perceived mathematics teachers support, particularly in terms of affective support, and their mathematics self-efficacy play in fostering their

mathematics feedback literacy during high school. The discoveries not only broaden the theoretical scope of research on feedback literacy, but also provide new practical perspectives and

strategic recommendations for improving high school students’ mathematics feedback literacy, enhancing mathematics self-efficacy, and ultimately facilitating the development of mathematical

learning effectiveness and mathematical thinking skills. * EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED TEACHER SUPPORT ON ONLINE LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ ENGAGEMENT 2024, Heliyon Citation Excerpt : While yet to be

established as a unified concept in the pertinent literature, perceived teacher support undeniably holds considerable importance and it has been measured accordingly, be it from overall or

single-dimension level[35,49]. Studies have reported overall perceived teacher support at both high level[50,51]and intermediate level[34,44,52,53] due to varied measurements, sample size,

demographic characteristics etc. Furthermore, the burgeoning body of related research has found that perceived teacher support has multifaceted effects on learners’ learning processes,

including academic enjoyment, academic achievement, motivation, self-efficacy, and so on[12,35,43,54,55]. Show abstract This study aimed to investigate the effects of perceived teacher

support on online language learners’ engagement. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were adopted to explore the issue. A total of 1429 Chinese first-year non-English major students

from different disciplines participated in the survey, and three of them were selected as semi-structured interviewees. The collected survey data were processed through multiple analyses

with the help of SPSS 26.0 and AMOS 24.0, while qualitative data subsequently gathered from interviews served as supplementary evidence for examining the quantitative results. The findings

indicated that online language learners were generally engaged at an intermediate level, and overall perceived teacher support was relatively close to the upper level. Furthermore, online

language learners’ engagement was positively correlated with perceived teacher support. Specifically, perceived intellectual support dominated in predicting overall engagement, cognitive

engagement, emotional engagement, and social engagement, whereas perceived emotional support had the strongest influence on language learners’ behavioral engagement in the online context.

The implications of these findings for future studies and educational practices were discussed. * VARIABLE- AND PERSON-CENTERED APPROACHES TO TEACHER SUPPORT AND LEARNING SATISFACTION IN

BLENDED ENGLISH LEARNING: THE ROLE OF SDT MOTIVATION AND LEARNING ENGAGEMENT 2025, BMC Psychology * ENHANCING SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH INQUIRY ACTIVITIES: THE CRITICAL ROLE OF PERCEIVED

TEACHER SUPPORT 2024, International Journal of Science Education View full text © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.